258. Two Definitions of Reason and the Decalogue

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

Two Definitions of Reason #

• First Definition: The ability to understand reason, order itself in others, and direct itself in others
• Second Definition: Shakespeare’s definition—the ability for large discourse, looking before and after
• Both definitions are harmonious; they emphasize different aspects of rational activity
• The word “understanding” (intelligentia) is crucial—it means to know what stands under something (the essence or what is named)
• Reasoning as discourse involves thinking about something before understanding it

Understanding as Core to Reason #

• Understanding separates reason from sensation; the senses know only accidents, while reason grasps substance (what a thing is)
• Understanding can be extended beyond essence to include understanding order, relationships, and causes
• The etymology of “substance” (sub-stance) and “understanding” both involve the notion of standing under
• To understand a word means to know what stands under the word (its meaning or the thing named)

The Decalogue and Dispensation #

• The precepts of the Decalogue are entirely indispensable (omnino indispensabilia) regarding their core intention
• The first table of the Decalogue orders man to God; the second table orders man to neighbor
• God cannot dispense from the precepts of the Decalogue because God is justice itself and cannot negate Himself
• Particular applications of precepts may be dispensed with if they do not prejudice the fundamental precept

God’s Simplicity and Justice #

• God is not only just but justice itself—He is altogether simple and not composed
• God cannot negate Himself or His justice, as His being and justice are identical
• When speaking of God, one must use both analogy and negation to speak truly
• God is wisdom itself, truth itself, life itself, and beatitude itself

Natural Law and the Common Good #

• The intention of the lawgiver is ordered first and chiefly to the common good
• Second, to the order of justice and virtue by which the common good is conserved
• Precepts containing the intention of the lawgiver (preservation of common good and order of justice) are indispensable
• Precepts that are ordered to these primary precepts (determining special modes or ways) may be subject to dispensation

Key Arguments #

The Harmony of Two Definitions #

• Shakespeare’s definition emphasizes the process (discourse, thinking through something)
• The other definition emphasizes the product (understanding order)
• Both are in harmony because reasoning involves both the discursive thinking process and the act of understanding that results from it
• Shakespeare brings out the fact that reason must typically think about something before understanding it

Why the Decalogue Cannot Be Dispensed #

First Objection: The naturally just things fail and are changeable, so the Decalogue (which concerns natural law) should be dispensable.

• Response: Aristotle speaks of determined ways of observing justice that fail in particular cases, not of justice itself. The precepts of the Decalogue contain the intention of the lawgiver itself and are therefore indispensable.

Second Objection: Man can dispense from human laws he established; therefore, God should be able to dispense from divinely established laws.

• Response: God remains faithful and cannot negate Himself. He is justice itself and cannot take away the order of His justice.

Third Objection: Killing in war or executing criminals seems to be a dispensation from “do not kill.”

• Response: Killing an unjust aggressor or executing a malefactor is not homicide; the person is owed death by legitimate authority. This is not a dispensation but a proper understanding of the precept.

Fourth Objection: The precept about the Sabbath was dispensed when the Maccabees fought on the Sabbath.

• Response: The precept can be dispensed in particular cases when observing it would prejudice the fundamental precept (preservation of the community).

The Order of the Universe #

• The universe has two orders to consider: the order of parts to each other, and the order of all parts to the separated substance, which is God
• The order of parts among themselves is justified by the order of the whole universe to God
• Example: The back and seat of a chair have an order relative to each other because of the chair’s order to sitting; similarly, creatures are ordered to each other because of their order to God

Important Definitions #

Understanding (Intelligentia) #

• The act of grasping what stands under a word, concept, or thing
• Involves knowing the essence or nature (quid est) of a thing
• Separates reason from sensation; the eyes do not know what color is, but reason does
• Can extend to understanding order, relationships, and causes

Reason (Ratio) #

• The ability to understand order in oneself and direct itself in others
• Includes both speculative reason (understanding what is) and practical reason (directing action)
• Characterized by discourse (discursus), thinking through something before understanding it
• Distinguished by ability to look before and after (seeing order and causation)

Substance (Substantia) #

• Can mean what stands under accidents (in the categories)
• Can mean the what-it-is (quid est), the essence of a thing
• In Latin, impositio nominis (placing upon a name) names the thing as standing under the word

Precept (Praeceptum) #

• A command of the lawgiver containing the intention of the lawgiver
• Some precepts contain the core intention of the lawgiver and are indispensable
• Others are ordered to primary precepts and may be subject to dispensation in particular cases

Dispensation (Dispensatio) #

• An exemption from a precept in particular cases
• Justified only when observing the precept would contradict the intention of the lawgiver
• Impossible regarding precepts that contain the core intention of the lawgiver

Examples & Illustrations #

Understanding vs. Perfection of Knowledge #

• We understand what a square is more perfectly than what a dog is
• Yet understanding what a dog is is better than understanding what a square is (because a dog is alive)
• Understanding what a dog is is better than understanding what God is in terms of perfection
• Yet understanding God imperfectly is better than understanding a dog perfectly because God is a better object of knowledge
• Aristotle: A brief glimpse of someone we love is better than a long view of something ugly or an ash can

Exemplary Precepts #

• “Do not kill”: Killing an enemy soldier in war or executing a criminal is not homicide because the person is owed death by legitimate authority
• Sabbath precept: The Maccabees could fight on the Sabbath because preserving the community (the fundamental precept) took precedence over the particular application of Sabbath rest
• Abraham and Isaac: Abraham consented to kill his son at God’s command because God, as Lord of life and death, had authority to command this

The Parrot and the Hail Mary #

• A parrot can recite the Hail Mary but does not understand what it says; it has the sounds but not the meaning
• This illustrates that understanding (knowing what stands under the words) is distinct from mere sound production and separates reason from sensation

Notable Quotes #

“The ability to understand reason, order itself in others. Or rather, direct itself, I mean, and direct itself in others.”

“A brief glimpse of someone we love is better than a long view of something ugly.”

“God is not only just but he’s justice itself… God is altogether simple and not composed.”

“The precepts of the Decalogue are omnino, entirely indispensable.”

“God remains faithful. He’s not able to negate himself… He would negate himself if he took away the order itself of his justice.”

Questions Addressed #

How can there be two definitions of reason? #

• They are in harmony; one emphasizes the process of thinking (discourse), the other emphasizes the product (understanding)
• Shakespeare brings out that reason must typically think about something before understanding it
• The other definition captures what understanding itself is: knowing what stands under something

Why is imperfect knowledge of God better than perfect knowledge of creatures? #

• The excellence of the object of knowledge is the primary criterion for judging whether one knowledge is better than another (following Aristotle)
• Imperfect knowledge of a better thing exceeds perfect knowledge of a lesser thing
• The mind naturally desires to know better things, even if imperfectly

Can God dispense from the precepts of the Decalogue? #

• No, regarding their core intention (the order of justice and the common good)
• Possible in particular cases if the dispensation does not prejudice the fundamental precept
• God cannot dispense because He is justice itself and cannot negate Himself
• What may appear to be a dispensation (like killing in war) is actually a proper understanding of the precept itself

How should we understand killing in war or capital punishment? #

• These are not violations of “do not kill” because the person is owed death by legitimate authority
• The precept must be understood according to the notion of justice: giving each person what is owed to them
• God, as Lord of life and death, can command even killing because He has authority over life itself