Lecture 185

185. The Distinction of Sins by Species and Causes

Summary
This lecture examines how sins are distinguished in species, focusing on whether they are properly distinguished by their objects, causes, or other criteria. Berquist works through Thomas Aquinas’s treatment of sin classification, defending the thesis that sins are distinguished primarily by their objects (which include their ends), not by their material causes or the circumstances in which they occur. The lecture also addresses the distinction between spiritual and carnal sins, examining how the same sin can be found in diverse objects while maintaining unity of species.

Listen to Lecture

Subscribe in Podcast App | Download Transcript

Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

  • The Primary Question: Whether sins are distinguished in species according to their objects rather than according to their causes, ends, or circumstances
  • Objects vs. Causes: The distinction between formal and material causation and how they apply to the specification of sinful acts
  • Spiritual vs. Carnal Sins: The proper distinction between sins perfected in spiritual pleasure versus those perfected in bodily pleasure
  • Unity of Species in Diverse Objects: How sins like pride and avarice maintain one species despite being found in diverse objects

Key Arguments #

Against Object-Based Distinction #

  • Acts are specified by their ends, not their objects; therefore sins should be distinguished by ends rather than objects
  • Evil, being a privation, is distinguished according to diverse species of opposites, not objects
  • The same sin in species (e.g., pride) can be found about different objects (spiritual things and bodily things), so objects cannot be the specifying principle

For Object-Based Distinction #

  • Acts are distinguished by their objects
  • Sins are bad acts; therefore sins are distinguished by their objects
  • The end is the primary object of the will; thus distinguishing by objects includes distinction by ends

Resolution: Per Se vs. Per Accidens #

  • The definition of sin consists in two things: a voluntary act and disorder
  • The voluntary act is per se compared to the one sinning (what they intend)
  • The disorder is per accidens to the intention of the sinner (no one intends evil qua evil, but always intends an apparent good)
  • Species are determined by what is per se, not per accidens
  • Therefore, sins are distinguished according to their voluntary acts and objects, not according to their disorder or causes

On Spiritual vs. Carnal Sins #

  • Twofold pleasure: animal/bodily pleasure (consummated in bodily apprehension) and spiritual pleasure (consummated in apprehension alone, e.g., in praise)
  • Sins perfected in spiritual pleasure = spiritual sins
  • Sins perfected in bodily/fleshly pleasure = carnal sins (gluttony, lust)
  • The Apostle’s reference to “works of the flesh” includes all sins because “flesh” signifies man living according to himself; every defect of human reason has its beginning from something carnal or fleshly

On Unity of Species in Diverse Objects #

  • Pride seeks excellence in diverse things (bodily and spiritual) because it maintains one formal ratio (the object): seeking excellence
  • Avarice seeks abundance of things useful for human life, yet maintains unity because the formal object is the same
  • Though objects differ materially in species or genus, one formal ratio can be found in them

On Causes and Species #

  • There are four genera of causes: matter, form, agent, and end
  • Formal and material causes regard the substance of things and determine species
  • Agent and end regard motion and operation
  • Voluntary acts (unlike natural acts determined to one thing) do not have necessity to proceed from one cause
  • From one active cause or motive, diverse species of sin can proceed (e.g., fear can cause stealing, killing, or desertion)
  • Only the final cause (end/object) specifies the act and determines the species of sin
  • The end is the object of the will as primary object; human acts have species from their end

Important Definitions #

  • Per se (by itself/essentially): That which belongs to the essential definition of a thing
  • Per accidens (accidentally/incidentally): That which is outside the definition of a thing or outside the intention of the agent
  • Formal ratio (formally speaking): The essential character or defining aspect under which something is considered
  • Privation (privatio): A lack of something that ought to be present; the nature of evil
  • Carnal/Fleshly pleasure: Pleasure perfected in bodily touch or sensible apprehension
  • Spiritual pleasure: Pleasure consummated in apprehension alone, without bodily sensation

Examples & Illustrations #

  • Pride: Can be about spiritual things (knowledge) or bodily things (good looks), yet remains one species because the formal object is seeking excellence
  • Avarice: Seeks abundance of useful things across diverse genera; maintains unity of species; occupies a middle position between spiritual and carnal because the object is bodily (money) but the pleasure is spiritual (domination, self-sufficiency)
  • Fornication: Uniquely noted as the sin in which “the soul serves the body” in a special way
  • Mao and tyrants: Example used to illustrate how pride seeks excellence through accumulation of power and authority
  • The greedy man: Works hard accumulating money he doesn’t need; exhibits small-mindedness by focusing on material things; this is a spiritual sin despite its material object
  • The trophy wife: Discussed as part of the display of wealth and domination associated with avarice

Questions Addressed #

Article 1: Are sins distinguished in species according to their objects? #

  • Resolution: Yes. The end is the chief notion of the good and the primary object of the will. Since acts are distinguished by their objects, and the end is compared to the act as object, sins differ according to their objects. The disorder in sin is accidental to the agent’s intention, while the object is essential (per se), and species are determined by what is per se.

Article 2: Are spiritual and carnal sins properly distinguished? #

  • Objection: The Apostle lists all sins as “works of the flesh”
  • Resolution: “Flesh” signifies man living according to himself, not merely bodily sensation. The distinction is by the type of pleasure in which the sin is perfected. Both spiritual and carnal sins involve reason, but they differ by their formal object and the pleasure in which they terminate. St. Paul’s teaching in 2 Corinthians about being “cleansed from all stain both of the flesh and of the spirit” confirms Gregory’s distinction.

Article 3: Are sins distinguished in species according to their causes? #

  • Objection: Things have their species from what gives them being; sins have being from causes; therefore they should be distinguished by causes
  • Resolution: No. Voluntary acts are not determined to one cause as are natural acts. The same cause (e.g., fear) can produce diverse species of sin (stealing, killing, desertion). Only the final cause (end/object) specifies voluntary acts. Therefore sins are distinguished according to their final cause (end/object), not according to their efficient causes or motives.

Notable Quotes #

“Every sin is either from fear, badly humiliating somebody, or from love, badly inflaming somebody.” — Augustine

“Everything that is in the world is either concupiscence of the flesh, or the concupiscence of the eyes, or the pride of life.” — 1 John 2:16

“The beginning of every sin is pride.” — Ecclesiasticus

“The root of all evils is covetousness [covetousness].” — 1 Timothy 6:10

“Never affirm, seldom deny, always distinguish.” — Dominican maxim (cited by Berquist)