31. Being as Being and Reasoned Knowledge

Subscribe in Podcast App | Download Transcript

Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

Being as Being and Reasoned Knowledge #

• Aristotle establishes a foundational claim: there exists a reasoned-out knowledge (ἐπιστήμη/episteme) that considers being as being (τὸ ὄν ᾗ ὄν) and what belongs to it through itself (κατὰ τὸ/kath’auto, per se)
• This science is wisdom, distinct from all particular sciences because it considers the most universal subject
• Being as being means being insofar as it is being—not being as limited by some particular quality or type

Per Se (Through Itself, As Such) #

• The phrase κατὰ τὸ/kath’auto (Latin: per se) is fundamental to understanding episteme
• Best translated as “through itself” or “as such”—indicating what belongs to something by virtue of what it is
• The pronoun reference is key: “X through being X” or “X as X”
• Examples:
  • Triangle: being a plane figure belongs per se (part of definition)
  • Triangle: having interior angles equal to two right angles belongs per se (follows necessarily from nature)
  • Triangle: being green does NOT belong per se (accidental property)
  • Man: having body and soul belongs per se (essential parts)
  • Statement: being speech belongs per se; signifying true or false belongs per se

Four Senses of Per Se #

1. Definitional: What belongs to a thing as part of its definition (e.g., triangle is a plane figure)
2. Essential Parts: Intrinsic components constitutive of the thing (e.g., body and soul in man)
3. Properties: Effects or consequences that follow necessarily from the nature (e.g., interior angles of triangle equal two right angles)
4. Divisions: Ways of dividing a subject according to its intrinsic nature (e.g., triangles divided into equilateral, isosceles, scalene—NOT into red, white, blue)

Distinction from Particular Sciences #

• Geometry considers the triangle per se, but not being per se; geometry considers continuous quantity
• Arithmetic considers number as number, not as being
• Natural philosophy considers natural things as natural, not as being
• Each particular science cuts off some part of being and considers it in a particular way
• Wisdom alone considers being without cutting off any part

The Problem of Equivocity #

• Being is not said univocally of all things—it has multiple meanings
• Example: “to be” means different things in “to live or die” versus “to be in Denmark”
• The word “thing” (τὶ/ti) is also equivocal: nose and ear are two things, but nose and shape of nose are not two things in the same way
• Despite this equivocity, being can still be the subject of one science

Equivocal by Reason vs. Equivocal by Chance #

• Equivocal by chance: Example is “bat” (baseball bat vs. flying rodent)—words share no connection, cannot be unified under one science
• Equivocal by reason (ἀνάλογος/analogos): Multiple meanings connected through reference to something primary or to a common end
  • Example: “healthy” (healthy body, healthy diet, healthy complexion, healthy exercise)—all relate to health of body; one science (medicine) considers all
  • Political philosophy: polis (city), government (rules polis), law (government rules by law), revolution (change of government)—all relate to polis; one science considers all
• Being is equivocal by reason: All meanings of being are connected through reference to substance (οὐσία/ousia) or act (ἐνέργεια/energeia)
• This connection justifies wisdom as a single, unified science despite being’s multiple meanings

Key Arguments #

Why Wisdom Considers Being as Being #

• Wisdom seeks the first causes (αἴτιαι/aitiai) and highest beginnings (ἀρχαί/archai) of all things
• The first cause’s causality extends to all beings
• Therefore, the science of the first cause must necessarily consider what is said of all things
• This is why the subject of wisdom must be being itself—the most universal subject

The Proportionality Argument (from contextual notes) #

• If the science of the king considers citizens (what is said of all subjects), then the science of the first cause must consider being (what is said of all things)
• The causality is proportionate to the universality of the subject

Why Wisdom Must Consider What Belongs Through Itself #

• The geometer considers what belongs to triangle through being a triangle (definitions, properties, divisions)
• The geometer does not consider what happens to triangles by accident (being green or red)
• Similarly, wisdom must consider what belongs to being through being being
• This is why Aristotle emphasizes: “what belongs to this through itself” (τὰ κατὰ τοῦτο συμβέβηκε/ta kata touto symbebeke)

Important Definitions #

Per Se (κατὰ τὸ/kath’auto) #

• A property or characteristic that belongs to something by virtue of what it is
• Contrasted with accidental properties (συμβεβηκότα/symbebekota) that happen to belong to something
• Can mean different things: definitional element, essential part, property, or natural division

Episteme (ἐπιστήμη/episteme) #

• Reasoned-out knowledge; knowledge that grasps things through their causes
• Considers what belongs to things through themselves (per se), not accidents
• Structured through definitions, properties, and necessary demonstrations

Being as Being (τὸ ὄν ᾗ ὄν) #

• Being insofar as it is being; being considered in its universality without limitation by particular type or quality
• The subject of wisdom
• Not identical with any particular being, but with what is common to all beings

Equivocal by Reason (ἀνάλογος/analogos) #

• A term said of multiple things with different but connected meanings
• The meanings refer back to a primary meaning or are ordered toward a common end
• Allows for unified science despite multiple meanings (unlike equivocal by chance)

Examples & Illustrations #

The Triangle in Geometry #

• Definition: A plane figure contained by three straight lines (belongs per se—part of definition)
• Property: Has interior angles equal to two right angles (belongs per se—follows from nature, proven via parallel theorem)
• Per Se Division: Equilateral, isosceles, scalene (divisions according to intrinsic nature—how three lines can be arranged)
• Accidental Properties: Green, red, blue (do NOT belong per se—purely accidental)
• The geometer studies only what belongs through itself, ignoring accidents

Healthy (Equivocal by Reason) #

• Healthy body (primary meaning)
• Healthy diet (preserves health of body)
• Healthy complexion (sign of health of body)
• Healthy exercise (promotes health of body)
• All are connected through reference to bodily health; one science (medicine) considers all
• This shows how equivocity by reason allows unified science

Political Philosophy (Equivocal by Reason) #

• Polis (city—primary meaning)
• Government (rules the polis)
• Law (government rules by law)
• Revolution (change of government)
• All are political because they relate to the polis; one unified science considers all

Statement (Περὶ Ἑρμηνείας/Peri Hermeneias) #

• Belongs to a statement per se: to be speech (vocal sound that signifies by human agreement with parts that signify)
• Belongs to a statement per se: to signify true or false
• Belongs to a statement per se: to be composed of noun and verb
• These are what belong to statement as statement, not accidents

Mozart’s Music #

• Opening example: “Mozart’s music is the best music”
• Distinction: “I like it most because it is best” (objective) vs. “It is best because I like it” (subjective)
• Parallels the question: Is Aristotle’s philosophy true because it’s useful in theology, or useful because it’s true?
• Answer: Aristotle’s philosophy is useful in theology BECAUSE it is true—truth is the reason for usefulness, not vice versa

Notable Quotes #

“There is a reasoned-out knowledge, which is my translation of the Greek word epistemia. There is a reasoned-out knowledge, or you could say a reasoned-out understanding, huh? Which looks at or considers being as being, right? And what belongs to this to itself.”

• Establishes the foundational definition of wisdom

“It is not only difficult to find the truth about all these, but it’s not even easy to doubt well about them by reason, huh?”

• From Aristotle: Even posing the questions well requires philosophical skill

“Most men aren’t good making distinctions.”

• Berquist’s application of Aristotle’s observation about human limitation in philosophy

“I like it the most because it is the best. There’s a difference there, right?”

• On distinguishing subjective preference from objective truth

“If there is a reasoned out of knowledge of being as being, it’s going to have to have that same condition, right? It’s going to have to talk about what belongs to being as such.”

• Why wisdom must consider being as being, not beings in particular

Questions Addressed #

Is there a reasoned knowledge of being as being? #

• Answer: Yes. Some things belong to being as such: to be one (being is necessarily one, not many), to be good (act is better than ability), and to be itself
• Evidence: Every being is either simple or composite; the composite would not be if its parts were not together
• Therefore, there are things that belong to being through being being, making episteme of being possible

How can being be the subject of one science if it is equivocal? #

• Answer: Being is equivocal by reason, not by chance
• All meanings of being are connected through reference to substance (what subsists in itself) or act (what actually is)
• This is analogous to “healthy,” which has multiple meanings but is still subject of one science (medicine), because all meanings refer back to health of body
• The connection among meanings justifies unified science

Why must wisdom consider what is said of all things? #

• Answer: Because wisdom seeks the first cause, and the first cause’s causality extends universally
• As the science of the king must consider what is said of all citizens (because the king’s authority extends to all), the science of the first cause must consider what is said of all things
• The universality of the cause requires consideration of the universal subject

What makes something belong per se vs. accidentally? #

• Per se: What belongs through the very nature/definition of a thing; what must follow from what something is
• Accident: What could be otherwise; what does not follow from what something is; what would be discovered through sense, not through reasoned knowledge
• Example: Green is accidental to triangle because being a triangle never necessitates being green; interior angles equal two right angles is per se because it follows from being a triangle

Why does each particular science have limited scope? #

• Geometry considers continuous quantity, not being as such
• Natural philosophy considers natural things, not being as such
• Each science “cuts off” some part of being and considers it in a particular way
• Only wisdom considers being without such limitations

Structure and Pedagogy #

The “Great Turnaround” #

• Berquist indicates that the relationship between being as being and the first cause constitutes the “great turnaround” in Metaphysics
• This turnaround explains the order of Books 4-14
• Once understood, it illuminates almost the entire order of wisdom
• Students are encouraged to anticipate what this turnaround will be

The Knot and Unknotting (μῦθος/mythos) #

• Book 3 ties the knots (poses ἀπορίαι/aporiai—puzzles, difficulties)
• Books 4-14 untie the knots (resolve the puzzles through systematic investigation)
• The structure parallels Shakespeare’s dramatic plots (tying the knot, unknotting it)
• This parallel shows how the lover of plots (φιλόμυθος/philomythos) has a certain likeness to the philosopher

The Proemium (πρόοιμον/prooimon) and Skopas (σκοπός/skopos) #

• Proemium: “paving the way” for what follows
• Most important part of proemium is the skopas (target/aim)
• Understanding what a text aims at is essential to reading Aristotle
• Example from Nicomachean Ethics: Knowing the target (happiness as the human end) allows proper aim at that end
• Berquist draws analogy to archery: if you’re not aiming at the target, you might as well forget hitting it