22. The Necessity of First Causes and the Problem of Infinite Regress

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

The Problem of Infinite Regress and First Causes #

• Aristotle demonstrates that if causal chains extended infinitely in any kind of cause, causation itself would be eliminated
• The principle applies universally: an infinite series of “moved movers” (things that cause only insofar as they are caused) is equivalent to having no mover at all
• A first cause must exist in each of the four kinds of causes

The Four Kinds of Causes and Their First Causes #

Efficient Cause (Mover)

• A “moved mover” causes motion only because it is itself moved
• If all movers are moved movers, there is no actual motion
• Therefore, there must be an “unmoved mover” as the first cause
• The train analogy: no matter how many wagons (moved movers) you add, you still need an engine (unmoved mover)

Material Cause (Matter)

• Aristotle does not elaborate extensively here because ancient philosophers agreed that matter exists as a cause
• The disputed question was whether causes exist beyond matter

Formal Cause (Form)

• Definitions cannot regress infinitely; if they did, we would need to know infinitely many definitions before knowing any definition
• We do come to know things through definition (empirical fact), so definitions must terminate
• Understanding (episteme) requires the mind to come to rest in something indivisible
• The very word “definition” (from Greek phinis, meaning “limit”) implies opposition to endless series
• Example from Euclid: square → quadrilateral → rectilineal plane figure → plane figure → figure; eventually one reaches indivisible terms

Final Cause (End)

• If everything is desired for the sake of something else, then nothing is desired as an end
• If there is no end, everything is merely a means with no purpose
• The end and good are essentially equivalent; to deny the end is to deny the good
• The word “end” itself contradicts the notion of an endless series
• A practical example: an engineer could not conceive of studying philosophy “for its own sake” and insisted it must be “brain food” (useful for something else)

The Interconnection of Causes #

• The end is the cause of all other causes being causes
• Example: the carpenter shapes wood (form and matter) because of the purpose of the chair (sitting/end)
• Therefore, God must be first not only as unmoved mover and maker, but also as the first end

The Problem of Methodology and Custom #

• Men typically determine the road of inquiry (method) according to custom rather than rational principle
• Custom acts on the mind from childhood, long before reasoning develops
• Once customary, something becomes “second nature” and seems naturally true
• Custom is stronger than argument for most people in their thinking
• The wise man (philosophus) must address how the road in any reasoned knowledge should be determined

Key Arguments #

The Infinite Regress Arguments (General Form) #

• For Mover: If all movers are moved movers, nothing moves anything. But motion exists. Therefore, an unmoved mover must exist.
• For Form/Definition: If all definitions require further definitions, we could never come to know anything by definition. But we do know things by definition. Therefore, definitions must terminate in indivisible terms.
• For End: If everything is desired for the sake of something else, nothing is desired as an end. But we do desire things and act for purposes. Therefore, something must be desired for its own sake.

The Principle of Causation and Truth #

• If the same property belongs to two things, and one has it because of the other, it belongs more to the cause
• Applied to truth: the cause is more true than the effect
• Applied to being: the first cause possesses being most fully; therefore, it is also most true

Important Definitions #

Moved Mover (Caused Cause): Something that causes an effect only insofar as it is itself caused by something prior. It has something before it and something after it.

Unmoved Mover: The first cause in the order of efficient causes; that which moves other things but is not itself moved by anything.

End (τέλος/telos): That for the sake of which something is done; the final cause; what is desired for its own sake, not for the sake of anything else.

Means: Something desired for the sake of something else; a middle term in a causal chain that has no intrinsic purpose.

Episteme (Reasoned-Out Understanding): Knowledge that comes to rest in understanding; the mind achieves stable comprehension. The word etymologically derives from “to halt” or “to come to a stop.”

Custom (ἔθος/ethos, or consuetudo in Latin): Habitual practice that shapes how we think and what we take as starting points for reasoning; becomes second nature and obscures the need for rational justification.

Examples & Illustrations #

The Train Analogy #

• Engine = unmoved mover (causes motion without being moved)
• Wagons = moved movers (cause motion of the caboose only because they are moved by the engine)
• Principle: No matter how many wagons you add, you still need an engine; the whole series is just one grand “moved mover” with nothing before it

The Euclidean Definitions #

• Square: defined as an equilateral, right-angled quadrilateral
• Quadrilateral: a rectilineal plane figure contained by four sides
• Plane figure: a figure contained by straight lines
• Eventually reaches “point,” which cannot be defined further
• This demonstrates that definitions must terminate

The Practical Engineer #

• Could not accept that philosophy is studied “for its own sake”
• After weeks of insistence, concluded it must be “brain food” (building up the mind for practical use later)
• Illustrates how custom prevents conceiving of things desired for themselves

The Problem of Infinite Wanting #

• If I desire medicine for the sake of health, I must desire health before I can desire medicine
• If everything is desired for the sake of something else, there is always something else to desire first
• This creates a logical problem: how does one begin to desire anything? There must be something desired for itself to initiate the chain

The Mouse on Grain (Aristotle’s Analogy) #

• A mouse on a pile of grain cannot move because the grain keeps giving away
• Like trying to walk in water—nothing is solid to push against
• Similarly, if understanding requires grasping an infinite series, the mind has nothing to rest upon

Notable Quotes #

“If everything is desired for the sake of something else, then everything to be desired is just one grand means to nothing.” — Berquist, explaining the absurdity of infinite final causality

“The end is the cause of all the other causes being causes.” — Berquist, on why God must be first in the order of ends as well as movers

“Custom is stronger than argument for the most part in our thinking.” — Berquist, on the influence of habit over reason

“My end is my beginning.” — G.K. Chesterton (cited by Berquist), on the paradox of God as both first cause and final cause

Questions Addressed #

Q: Can causal chains extend infinitely? A: No. An infinite chain of moved movers is logically equivalent to having no mover at all. Similarly, infinite regress in definition, matter, or final cause each leads to the elimination of causation in that category. Therefore, there must be a first cause in each kind.

Q: Why does Aristotle not elaborate much on first matter? A: Because ancient philosophers already agreed that matter exists as a cause. The disputed question was whether there are causes beyond matter. Since all parties accepted matter, Aristotle does not need to prove its existence.

Q: How can understanding be possible if definitions regress infinitely? A: It cannot. Understanding (episteme) requires the mind to come to rest in something indivisible that requires no further definition. If the mind never rests, there is no understanding—only endless questioning.

Q: Is the end as important a cause as the mover? A: Yes. In fact, the end is the cause of all other causes being causes. Without an end in view, the carpenter would have no reason to shape the wood, and formal and material causality would be purposeless.

Q: How does custom prevent philosophical progress? A: Custom makes us think we know what we do not know and prevents us from conceiving of alternatives to what we are habituated to, even when arguments against our position are unanswerable. Scientists, though trained to follow evidence, are often more influenced by custom than by new arguments.