5. A Thing's Own Act Is Its End: The Two-Layered Induction

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

• The Connection Between Act and End: The fundamental principle that a thing’s own act is its end or purpose, established through a two-layered inductive argument
• Definition of a Thing’s Own Act: What a thing alone can do, or does better than other things
• The Three Domains of Induction: Tools, organs, and occupations each exemplify the principle that own act = end
• Man’s Distinctive Act: The act with reason distinguishes man from other animals
• Refinement of the End: The end is not merely the act itself but the act done well
• The Concept of Virtue: The quality or disposition that enables a thing to perform its own act well
• Distinction Between Act of Reason and Act with Reason: The latter is broader and includes acts of will, emotion, and bodily action ordered by reason

Key Arguments #

The Two-Layered Induction: From Particulars to Universals #

First Layer: Establishing “A thing’s own act is its end” through three domains

• From Tools:

  • Knife’s own act = to cut; end = cutting
  • Pen’s own act = to write; end = writing
  • Hammer’s own act = to hammer; end = hammering
  • Corkscrew’s own act = to remove cork; end = removing cork
  • Screwdriver’s own act = to turn screw; end = turning screw

• From Organs (Greek: ὄργανον, organon = tool):

  • Eye’s own act = to see; end = seeing
  • Ear’s own act = to hear; end = hearing
  • Heart’s own act = to pump blood; end = pumping blood

• From Occupations:

  • Cook’s own act = to cook; end = cooking
  • Pianist’s own act = to play piano; end = playing piano
  • Teacher’s own act = to teach; end = teaching
  • Policeman’s own act = to maintain order

Second Layer: From these particular inductions to the universal principle

• Conclusion: A thing’s own act is its end

The Refinement: The End as Excellence #

• The end is not merely the bare act but the act done well
• A dull knife does not achieve the purpose of a knife (to cut well)
• A pen that doesn’t write well is not achieving its end
• A teacher must teach well, not merely teach poorly
• Therefore: A thing’s end is its own act done well

The Fundamental Principle Underlying the Induction #

• Ability is for the sake of act: The foundation for why own act = end
• The ability to see exists for the sake of seeing
• The ability to hear exists for the sake of hearing
• Since everything that has its own act is characterized by its own ability, and ability is for the sake of act, a thing’s own act must be its end

Application to Man #

• Man’s Own Act: The act with reason
• Man is an animal with reason (distinguished from other animals)
• Even if other animals possess some form of mind, man possesses this act preeminently
• Syllogistic Form:
  • A thing’s own act is its end (major premise, established by induction)
  • The act with reason is man’s own act (minor premise)
  • Therefore: The act with reason is man’s end
• More Precisely: The act with reason done well is man’s end, or equivalently, the act with reason according to human virtue

Important Definitions #

A Thing’s Own Act (ἴδιος ἐνέργεια) #

Definition: What that thing alone can do, or at least does better than other things

• Can apply to tools, organs, occupations, and to things themselves
• Example: Walking is the proper act of feet, even though hands can walk (as substitutes), it is still called the foot’s own act
• Example: A pen can be used as a screwdriver substitute, but turning a screw is not its own act

End (τέλος, finis) #

Definition: That for the sake of which something is or is done; the purpose

• Not to be confused with mere termination or death
• The end is the reason why something exists or an action is performed
• More precisely: the end is the own act done well

Act with Reason (ἐνέργεια κατὰ λόγον) #

Definition: Broader than “act of reason” alone; includes acts ordered, measured, or directed by reason

• Acts of Reason (ἐνέργεια τοῦ λόγου): Intellectual acts like understanding, reasoning, defining, inducing
• Acts with Reason: These plus acts of will (love), emotions (anger), and bodily acts (walking, eating) that are moderated by reason
• Example of Act with Reason but not Act of Reason: Reasonable love, reasonable anger, reasonable eating at the right time in the right amount
• Distinction: Not all acts with reason are acts of reason, but all acts of reason are acts with reason

Virtue (ἀρετή, virtus) in the Broad Sense #

Definition: The quality or disposition of a thing that enables it to perform its own act well

• Relation to Act: Virtue is distinct from the act itself; it is what makes the act excellent
• Virtue ≠ Act: Sharpness is the virtue of a knife, but sharpness is not the same as cutting well
• Examples:
  • Knife: virtue = sharpness; vice = dullness
  • Eye: virtue = proper vision; vice = poor vision
  • Herb: virtue = freshness and potency; vice = staleness or weakness
• Broader Application: Wealth is the virtue of money (enables money to do its act—purchasing—well); power or influence is the vice of money in this context

Examples & Illustrations #

Tools as Exemplars of Own Act and End #

• A knife’s own act is to cut; the purpose of having a knife is to cut (well)
• When a knife is dull, it fails to achieve its end, even though it still technically cuts
• A pen’s own act is to write; if it doesn’t write well, it is not achieving its purpose
• A corkscrew removes corks better than other tools; this is its own act and its end
• A regular knife can open a cork but does so poorly and damages the cork; thus opening corks is not the knife’s own act
• One can use a regular hammer to pound chicken flat, but this is not the regular hammer’s own act (its own act is to hammer nails)

Organs as Exemplars #

• The eye’s own act is to see; the end of the eye is to see well
• Without glasses, one might see blurred; with proper glasses (virtue of the eye), one sees well
• The ear’s own act is to hear; the end is to hear well
• The heart’s own act is to pump blood; the end is to do so effectively

Occupations as Exemplars #

• A cook is hired for cooking; the cook’s end is to cook well
• A teacher’s end is not merely to perform teaching but to teach well
• A pianist is hired to play piano; if the pianist plays missing notes, the end is not achieved
• A policeman’s own act is maintaining order; this is the end or purpose of the policeman

The Herb Example #

• Fresh herbs have the virtue of an herb—they season food well
• An over-used herb loses its virtue (potency) and fails to season properly
• The proverb “Much virtue in herbs, little in men” illustrates that herbs more often retain their virtue upon production, whereas most men lack the virtue (excellence) they should possess
• The virtue of an herb enables it to do its own act (seasoning) well

The Money Example (from Aristotle’s Rhetoric) #

• Money’s own act is to purchase or enable buying
• Wealth (abundance of money) is the virtue of money—it enables money to do its act well
• Poverty is the vice of money—it prevents money from doing its act well
• Note: This illustrates the broad meaning of virtue applied even to inanimate objects

The Eye Virtue Example #

• One eye may see better at distance than the other (different degrees of virtue)
• The virtuous eye is the one that sees well
• This concrete example clarifies what is meant by virtue enabling an act to be done well

Notable Quotes #

“A thing’s own act is what that thing alone can do, or at least does better than other things.”

“The end is that for the sake of which something is or is done.”

“Ability is for the sake of act.”

“A thing’s own act done well is its end.”

“Virtue is the quality or disposition of a thing that enables it to perform its own act well.”

“Much virtue in herbs, little in men.”

“The act with reason is man’s own act, and therefore the act with reason is man’s end.”

“You are the salt of the earth; if the salt loses its virtue, it is cast out.”

Questions Addressed #

What is the connection between a thing’s own act and its end? #

Answer: A thing’s own act is its end; more precisely, a thing’s own act done well is its end. This is established through systematic induction from tools, organs, and occupations, and grounded in the principle that ability is for the sake of act.

How do we establish that a thing’s own act is its end? #

Answer: Through a two-layered inductive argument: First, we observe particular domains (tools, organs, occupations) and note that in each case, the thing’s characteristic activity constitutes its purpose. Second, from these particular inductions, we induce the general principle that a thing’s own act is its end.

What is man’s own act? #

Answer: The act with reason. Man is an animal with reason, and this distinguishes him from other animals. Even those who grant animals some form of mind must acknowledge that man possesses the act with reason preeminently or alone.

What is the difference between “act of reason” and “act with reason”? #

Answer: “Act of reason” refers specifically to intellectual operations (understanding, reasoning, defining, inducing). “Act with reason” is broader and includes acts of reason plus acts of will (love), emotions (anger), and bodily acts (eating, walking) that are ordered, measured, or directed by reason. Man’s distinctive act is the act with reason, not merely the act of reason.

Is man’s end simply “the act with reason” or something more precise? #

Answer: More precisely, it is “the act with reason done well,” or equivalently, “the act with reason according to human virtue.” Just as a knife’s end is not merely to cut but to cut well, man’s end is not merely to exercise reason but to exercise it excellently.

What is virtue in the broad sense? #

Answer: Virtue is the quality or disposition of a thing that enables it to perform its own act well. It is not the act itself but rather what makes the act excellent. Sharpness is the virtue of a knife; wealth is the virtue of money; virtue in man is the quality that enables him to do his own act (the act with reason) well.

How does understanding “virtue in the broad sense” help clarify man’s end? #

Answer: Instead of merely saying man’s end is “the act with reason done well,” we can say it is “the act with reason according to human virtue.” This formulation clarifies that achieving man’s end requires identifying and developing the specific virtues that enable man to perform his own act excellently.