27. Becoming Strong in Common Ground: Agreement Among Philosophers

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

The Problem of Disagreement #

• Pre-Socratic philosophers disagree on nearly every fundamental point
• This widespread disagreement can lead either to despair about human knowledge or to reckless presumption
• Aristotle’s solution: find what is common to all positions rather than focusing on disagreements

The Universal Principle: Change Through Contraries #

• All Greek natural philosophers explain change through opposites or contraries
• Examples cited: dense/rare, hot/cold, wet/dry, mixed/segregated, love/hate, even/odd
• This principle appears universally—ancient Greece, ancient China (I Ching with yin/yang), and modern physics
• Crucially, this principle is forced on the mind by truth itself, not freely imagined as a hypothesis

Custom and Habituation vs. Reason #

• Human beings easily become accustomed to seeing things as normal, even when they represent a decline (illustration: the movie scene and Rosa’s reaction)
• Einstein’s example: despite revolutionary thinking, Einstein resisted the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory because determinism was so deeply ingrained from his upbringing
• Heisenberg’s observation: even brilliant scientists cannot easily abandon fundamental assumptions they were raised with
• The solution requires help from a master or teacher to encourage proper thinking

Aristotle’s Method of ‘Becoming Strong’ #

Berquist identifies several key steps Aristotle takes:

Step One: Give Reason for What All Say Without Reason

• Aristotle provides justification (a syllogistic argument) for why everyone posits contraries as first principles
• This validates universal agreement by showing it follows necessarily from the nature of change

Step Two: The Nature of This Common Thought

• This thought is forced by truth itself, not a freely imagined hypothesis
• Contrast: Einstein’s phrase “creation of scientific hypothesis is like writing a novel” suggests hypotheses are freely created
• A truth forced by mind cannot be otherwise; a hypothesis can be tested and rejected
• Universal recognition across cultures and ages points to truth

Step Three: Distinguish How Contraries Are Judged

• Some philosophers judge the fundamental contraries by the senses (hot/cold, wet/dry)
• Others judge by reason (odd/even, love/hate)
• All seek the first pair of contraries, not just any pair

Step Four: Agreement in General and Proportionally

• In general: all agree that change involves contraries
• Proportionally: different pairs maintain the same structural relationship
• Example from mathematics: 2:3 as 4:6 as 8:12—different numbers, same proportional relationship
• Philosophical example: dense is to rare as full is to empty as love is to hate

Step Five: Recognize Lack or Privation in Each Pair

• One member of each contrary pair is superior or more positive
• The other is inferior or involves a lack (λείψις/privatio)
• Dense has something that rare lacks; full has something that empty lacks; love has something that hate lacks
• Thomas Aquinas is notable for recognizing this principle, which will become even more important in Reading 11

Key Arguments #

The Principle of Fewness (Simplicity) #

• Fewer principles are better if they are sufficient
• Not that fewer is always better, but fewer is better when adequate
• Fundamental principle in natural science from the Greeks through Einstein
• Shakespeare’s phrase: “Fewness in truth”
• Illustration: Newton, Galileo, and Einstein all operate on this principle

The Role of Imagination in Scientific Discovery #

• Einstein observed that creation of scientific hypothesis is like writing a novel
• Scientific theories are usually invented by young men (typically in their 20s and 30s)
• The imagination is most perfect at a young age
• Reason, however, is better at later ages (50+)
• Example: Heisenberg’s original ideas came in his 20s, but his understanding of what he invented became clearer and more crystallized as he aged
• This suggests scientific progress requires both imagination and mature understanding

Proportion in Understanding Agreement #

• Despite surface disagreement, proportional thinking reveals hidden unity
• Example: different pairs of contraries maintain proportional relationships
• Illustration from marriage: wife A is to husband A as wife B is to husband B—different people, proportional relationship
• Wine pairing example: Chardonnay is to chicken as Chianti is to spaghetti
• Understanding proportion shows that all philosophers are saying the same thing in structure while differing in particulars

Important Definitions #

Contraries (ἐναντία/contraria) #

Opposites that cannot coexist in the same subject at the same time. All natural change involves transition from one contrary to another.

First Principles/Beginnings (ἀρχαί/principia) #

The fundamental causes from which all other things derive.

Proportion (ἀναλογία/proportio) #

In the Greek sense: a likeness of ratios, not merely a mathematical ratio. Structural similarity across different particulars. Example: 2:3 as 4:6 as 8:12—each pair maintains the same proportional relationship despite different numbers.

Privation or Lack (λείψις/privatio) #

The absence of a quality or perfection that something is capable of having. One member of a contrary pair represents presence; the other represents absence or privation.

Forced by Truth (anankasthenai ypotei tei aletheiai) #

A principle or thought that cannot be otherwise because truth itself compels it. Contrasted with a freely imagined hypothesis.

Examples & Illustrations #

Movie Theater and Custom #

• A young unmarried woman becomes accustomed to indecent movie scenes
• What was shocking becomes accepted as normal through habituation
• Illustrates how custom blinds us to moral decline

The Doctor and the Patient #

• A patient describes his daily routine: “I get up, shave, vomit, and brush my teeth”
• When the doctor expresses shock, the patient responds: “Doesn’t everybody?”
• Shows how deeply ingrained customs make people view abnormalities as normal

Einstein and Quantum Theory #

• Despite being revolutionary, Einstein resisted the Copenhagen interpretation
• Reason: he was too accustomed to determinism from his upbringing
• Illustrates that even brilliant minds resist contradicting fundamental assumptions

Marriage Proportionality #

• Two couples may be well-matched: husband A with wife A, husband B with wife B
• If spouses were swapped, both marriages would fail
• Illustrates that agreement can be proportional rather than particular
• Wife A is to husband A as wife B is to husband B

Hair Length (Proportion in Nature) #

• Modern people say there’s nothing wrong with men having long hair
• Appeal to Christ wearing long hair
• But in the age when Christ lived, women wore hair to their ankles and men wore it shorter
• The natural proportion remains: women’s hair should be longer than men’s
• Bible says “a woman’s glory is her hair,” but hair is not a compliment to a man
• Illustrates that what is natural may be proportional rather than absolute

Wine and Food Pairing #

• Chardonnay pairs with chicken; Chianti pairs with spaghetti
• Different wines for different foods
• Proportionally: Chardonnay is to chicken as Chianti is to spaghetti
• Illustrates proportional agreement despite particular differences

Pythagoras Table of Contraries #

• Pythagoras listed ten pairs of contraries, one column labeled “good,” the other “bad”
• Right is good, left is bad; male is good, female is bad
• Anticipates Aristotle’s observation that one contrary is superior and the other inferior
• Shows ancient recognition of privation principle

Questions Addressed #

How can we proceed when philosophers disagree? #

• Not by despairing or by presumptuous individual genius
• By finding what is common to all positions
• By becoming strong in that common basis before resolving particular disagreements

What is the common basis among all natural philosophers? #

• All explain change through contraries or opposites
• This is not a hypothesis but something forced on the mind by truth itself
• This principle appears universally across cultures and times

Why do some philosophers judge contraries by senses and others by reason? #

• Different access points to the same fundamental truth
• Sensible contraries (hot/cold, wet/dry) are immediately known through sensation
• Rational contraries (odd/even, love/hate) require abstraction and reasoning
• Both point to the same underlying principle

Why are proportional agreements important? #

• They reveal hidden unity beneath apparent disagreement
• Understanding proportion shows that different thinkers are saying the same thing structurally
• Proportional thinking bridges particular disagreements and general agreement

Methodological Insights #

The Importance of Common Ground #

• Men tend to agree more about the general than the specific
• Starting with the common provides a stable foundation for resolving disagreements
• The common is more known to us than the particular

Imagination vs. Reason in Science #

• Imagination is necessary for formulating novel scientific hypotheses
• Imagination is most powerful in youth (20s-30s)
• Reason develops more fully later (by age 50+)
• Greatest scientific discoveries come when imagination is strongest, but understanding deepens when reason matures

The Role of Teacher and Student #

• A good teacher knows when to encourage and when to restrain
• Students need both hope (that truth is knowable) and fear (of error)
• Custom and habituation are powerful forces that resist change
• External aids (authority, credibility, grace) help move the will toward assent