22. The Mover and Matter: From Heraclitus to Quantum Theory

Subscribe in Podcast App | Download Transcript

Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

The Development of the Mover Concept in Pre-Socratic Philosophy #

Heraclitus

• Fire as both matter and moving force
• Problem: What makes fire a good mover (its heat) makes it a poor candidate for first matter, as it limits matter to one quality
• “War is the father of all things” - struggle of opposites as the generative principle

Empedocles

• Introduces love and hate as distinct movers, separate from the four elements (earth, air, fire, water)
• Love brings elements together; hate separates them
• Represents progress toward separating mover from matter, though sometimes love and hate are mixed with the elements

Anaxagoras

• Introduces the greater mind (νοῦς / nous) as the completely separated mover
• Mind is unlimited, self-ruling, and not mixed with things (necessary for ruling)
• Mind is the thinnest and purest of all things
• Mind has all knowledge and all power
• This separation is fundamental: a ruler must be separated from the ruled to rule effectively

Modern Physics and Ancient Thought #

Heisenberg’s Parallel

• If ‘fire’ is replaced by ’energy’ in Heraclitus’s doctrine, modern physics becomes strikingly similar
• Energy is both substance (matter) and the cause of change (mover)
• Elementary particles are made from energy; energy transforms into motion, heat, light, tension
• Einstein’s E=mc² demonstrates that mass can be converted from energy
• Caution: Energy in mathematical physics is more abstract than Heraclitus’s fire

The Confusion in Modern Science

• Mathematical equations (like Newton’s laws) are universal but contain neither matter nor motion in a strict sense
• They shadow physical realities but operate in the abstract realm
• The confusion between matter and mover persists because mathematics itself avoids concrete materiality
• Marxists return to Heraclitus to avoid separation of mover and matter; once separated, one approaches immaterial movers and ultimately God

Newton and Classical Physics

• Newton sought to reduce all phenomena to “attractive and repulsive forces” between particles whose intensity depends on distance
• Similar to Empedocles’s love and hate, but expressed mathematically
• Newton hoped to derive all natural phenomena through the same reasoning
• This became the foundation for 200+ years of classical physics

Determinism: The Absolute Principle of Classical Science #

Democritus’s Principle

• “Nothing happens at random, but everything comes to be from reason and by necessity”
• The past necessarily determines the future
• No room for contingency, luck, or chance; these are names for unknown causes

Historical Entrenchment

• Became the absolute principle of modern science from the 17th-19th centuries
• Laplace: If one knew the position and momentum of every particle, a super-calculating mind could determine the entire future
• Scientists thought Newton’s predictive success proved Newtonian physics must be true (discovery of Neptune through mathematical prediction confirmed this belief)

Extension Beyond Physics

• Claude Bernard insisted determinism cannot be doubted without abandoning science itself
• Biology, psychology, and other sciences adopted determinism to appear scientific
• Freud applied determinism even to dreams—apparently irrational phenomena—finding hidden rational causes

Quantum Theory and the Challenge to Determinism #

The Breakthrough

• Heisenberg formulated the principle of indeterminacy (ἀορίστως / indeterminism) in the 20th century
• This challenged the sacred, absolute principle of modern science
• More revolutionary than relativity theory because it questioned determinism itself, not merely its particulars
• Relativity theories left determinism intact

Copenhagen Interpretation

• Developed by Niels Bohr and Heisenberg
• Solvay Congress (1927): Einstein presented thought experiments to refute the Copenhagen Interpretation
• Bohr refuted Einstein’s objections by showing Einstein had overlooked something from relativity theory itself
• This was Einstein’s last attempt to preserve determinism against quantum theory

Heisenberg’s Key Insight

• Quantum theory reintroduced Aristotle’s understanding of potency (δύναμις / dynamis) or ability
• Potentiality is a genuine feature of reality, not merely an expression of ignorance
• This restored room for contingency in the natural world

Key Arguments #

The Separation Argument #

• Premise 1: A ruler must be separated from the ruled in order to rule effectively
• Premise 2: The mind rules all things
• Conclusion: The mind must be separated from things
• Supporting Logic: This principle appears in judicial impartiality (“impartial” = “not a part”), military command (officers cannot socialize as equals with enlisted), and institutional hierarchies

The Syllogism as Analogy for Matter and Mover #

• Premises relate to the conclusion as matter (the parts out of which the conclusion is made)
• The middle term (B) functions as the mover, bringing together subject (C) and predicate (A)
• The middle term is not itself a part of the conclusion
• Example: A matchmaker arranges a party, bringing two people together; the matchmaker is the mover but not part of the marriage

The Paradox of Determinism and Confirmation #

• The Problem: If hypothesis H predicts P, and P is observed, does it follow that H is true?
• The Answer: No. This is not a valid syllogism (affirming the consequent)
• Claude Bernard’s Insight: Doubt is intrinsic to experimental science because confirmation never proves a hypothesis, only makes it more probable
• Einstein’s Recognition: Before relativity theory, scientists believed Newtonian physics must be true due to its predictive success; relativity showed that different hypotheses can predict the same phenomena

Important Definitions #

Mover (Efficient Cause)

• That which brings about change or motion
• Must be distinguished from matter to rule effectively
• In Anaxagoras: the νοῦς (nous / greater mind)
• In modern science: energy or force

Determinism

• The principle that all events are necessitated by prior causes
• “Nothing happens at random, but everything comes to be from reason and by necessity” (Democritus)
• The absolute principle of classical science (17th-19th centuries)
• Challenged by quantum mechanics and the principle of indeterminacy

Potency (δύναμις / Dynamis) or Ability

• Aristotelian concept: the capacity to be or become something
• Contrasts with actuality (what something is now)
• Reintroduced in quantum theory to explain indeterminacy
• Allows for genuine contingency and possibility

Pantheism

• Identification of God (θεός / theos) with the totality of nature
• God is mixed with things, not separate
• Contrasts with Anaxagoras’s view of mind as necessarily separated from matter
• Einstein described his conception of God as “pantheistic,” influenced by Spinoza

Examples & Illustrations #

The Matchmaker

• A friend arranges a party with one unmarried couple among married couples
• The couple meets, falls in love, and marries
• The matchmaker is the mover/efficient cause but is not part of the marriage itself
• Demonstrates that the mover need not be a part of what it brings about

The Cousin’s Dream

• A man dreams of being chased by a tiger down a street
• Reaching a dead end, he turns to face the tiger
• The tiger says: “How would you like to buy a raffle ticket?”
• Appears completely irrational and random, yet Freud would insist hidden rational causes determine it
• Illustrates determinism’s reach even into apparently irrational phenomena

Neptune’s Discovery

• Newtonian physics predicted small deviations in known planets’ orbits
• Rather than question Newton, scientists postulated unknown planets causing the deviations
• Mathematical predictions were so exact that telescopes found Neptune
• Einstein noted this success led scientists to believe Newtonian physics must be true
• Later, Einstein’s theories explained the same phenomena with different assumptions

Particle Collisions in High-Energy Physics

• When particles collide at high energies, sometimes particles with more mass than the original ones are created
• This greater mass/matter comes from the energy with which they collided
• Demonstrates energy as the fundamental substance from which matter emerges (paralleling Heraclitus on fire)

Notable Quotes #

“Fire as a basic element is both matter and a moving force.” — Heisenberg (on Heraclitus)

“Energy is the substance of which all elementary particles, all atoms, and therefore all things are made.” — Heisenberg

“If we replace the word fire by the word energy, we can almost repeat a statement word for word from a modern point of view.” — Heisenberg

“Nothing happens at random, but everything comes to be from reason and by necessity.” — Democritus (Lucippus)

“I derive from the celestial phenomena the forces of gravity… I wish I could derive the rest of the phenomena of nature by the same kind of reasoning.” — Newton

“Attraction and repulsion. It has no meaning better than Empedocles knows his love and hate. But you have these contrary causes there.” — Berquist

“The world is basically rational or understandable.” — Einstein (paraphrased by Berquist)

“A firm belief, bound up with deep feeling, in a superior mind that reveals itself in the world of experience, represents my conception of God.” — Einstein

“This may be described as pantheistic.” — Einstein (on his conception of God)

“We cannot doubt that [the principle of determinism]. To doubt that would be to doubt science.” — Claude Bernard

“Doubt is intrinsic to the experimental method.” — Claude Bernard

“Hypothesis is never known to be true. It always remains a system of guesses.” — Einstein

“Quantum theory reintroduced Aristotle’s understanding of potency or ability.” — Heisenberg (interpreted by Berquist)

“The principle of determinism was the absolute principle of modern science… But quantum theory did [challenge it].” — Berquist

Questions Addressed #

Why is fire a problematic first principle?

• What makes fire a good mover (its heat) makes it a poor candidate for first matter
• Limiting matter to one quality contradicts the role of matter as the potential for all qualities
• This tension leads to the separation of mover from matter in Empedocles and Anaxagoras

How does modern energy relate to Heraclitus’s fire?

• Both are substance and moving force
• Both can transform into other forms (energy into motion, heat, light, tension)
• But energy in mathematical physics is more abstract than concrete fire
• The confusion between matter and mover persists in modern thought

Why must the mover be separated from the ruled?

• A ruler mixed with the ruled cannot rule impartially or effectively
• The judicial principle: an impartial judge is “not a part” of the case
• Military principle: officers must maintain separation from enlisted personnel
• By extension, the mind must be separated from matter to rule all things

Why did Einstein reject determinism in quantum theory but not provide reasons for pantheism?

• Berquist suggests Einstein was influenced by democratic customs rather than by rigorous argument
• Pantheism appeals to democratic sensibilities (emphasis on equality)
• Einstein provides no logical reason why the greater mind must be “mixed with things”
• Anaxagoras, by contrast, provided clear reasons for separation
• This indicates Tocqueville’s analysis of democratic culture was more compelling to Einstein than philosophical argument

How can hypothesis confirmation never prove a hypothesis true?

• If H predicts P, and P is observed, the logical form is: If H then P; P is true; therefore H is true
• This is the fallacy of affirming the consequent, not a valid syllogism
• Many hypotheses can predict the same phenomena (e.g., Newton and Einstein both predict planetary motion)
• Therefore, no amount of confirmed predictions proves a hypothesis true; doubt remains intrinsic to science

Why is quantum indeterminacy a greater revolution than relativity?

• Relativity theories preserved determinism while correcting details of Newtonian physics
• Quantum theory challenges the absolute principle of determinism itself
• It reintroduces genuine contingency (potentiality) into nature
• This is a return to Aristotelian understanding after 300+ years of deterministic science