17. Empedocles: The Four Elements and Change as Mixture

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

The Transition from Monism to Pluralism #

The Problem of One First Matter: Empedocles abandons the search for a single first matter by proposing an either-or argument:

• If the first matter has definite qualities, everything would possess that quality (e.g., if water is first matter and water is wet, all things would be wet—contradicting the observed diversity of sweet, bitter, hard, soft, wet, dry things)
• If the first matter has no qualities whatsoever, nothing could have any qualities (violating the principle ex nihilo nihil fit—“you can’t get something out of nothing”)
• Therefore, there must be multiple first matters with distinct qualities

The Four Elements Theory #

The Four Roots: Earth, Air, Fire, Water—each with a divine name (Hades, Hera, Hephaestus/Zeus, Nestus)

Distinguishing by Opposites: The four elements are distinguished by two pairs of opposite qualities:

• Fire: hot and dry
• Water: wet and cold
• Earth: dry and cold
• Air: hot and wet (steam; shares heat with fire and moisture with water)

Why These Opposites and Not Others? Hot/cold and wet/dry are more fundamental than other apparent opposites because they are the causes of other qualities:

• Hard/soft: caused by hot/cold (heated butter becomes soft; dried sponge becomes hard)
• Colors (black/white): caused by heat (toasted bread darkens; heated metal becomes red or white hot)
• Tastes (sweet/bitter): caused by cooking and heat application

Since the senses reveal no more fundamental opposites than hot/cold and wet/dry, these must be the opposites that distinguish the first matters.

Numerical Ratios: Following Pythagorean thought, Empedocles argues that compounds are formed by different numerical ratios of the four elements:

• Bone: 2 parts water + 4 parts fire (more dry element = explains why bone is the driest part of the body)
• Flesh and blood: elements in “about equal measure” with more of the moist element than in bone
• This anticipates modern chemistry: just as H₂O and C₆H₁₂O₆ differ by molecular ratios

All Change as Mixture and Separation Only #

The Rejection of True Generation and Corruption: Nothing truly comes into being or ceases to exist. What appears to be birth and death is merely:

• Mixture (κρᾶσις): combination of elements in different arrangements
• Separation (διάκρασις): dissolution of compounds back into constituent elements

Berquist cites Empedocles’ own words: “There is no birth of any mortal thing, nor end in destructive death. There is only a mixing and an exchange of what has been mixed. Birth is a name given to these by ignorant men.”

The Fundamental Principle: “You can’t get something out of nothing.” If something truly came into existence, it would have come from nothing (which is impossible). Therefore:

• When a log burns, it doesn’t disappear; ashes remain below and smoke/particles rise (the fool without “far-reaching mind” thinks the log was annihilated)
• When a person dies, the elements that composed him don’t cease to exist; they simply separate and recombine

Reduction of All Change to Local Motion: All apparent qualitative changes are actually disguised changes of place:

• A magician pulling a rabbit from thin air: the rabbit was actually hidden in his sleeve (change of place, not something from nothing)
• Coffee changing from bitter to sweet: not the coffee’s quality changing, but sugar particles changing place from bowl into cup
• Water heating on a stove: not water changing from cold to hot, but countless molecules moving faster (kinetic theory of heat)

Key Arguments #

The Either-Or Argument for Multiple First Matters #

1. If there is one first matter, it either has definite qualities or no qualities
2. If it has definite qualities → everything would share that quality → contradicts observed diversity
3. If it has no qualities → nothing could have any qualities → violates ex nihilo nihil fit
4. Therefore: multiple first matters with distinct qualities are necessary

The Argument for Hot/Cold and Wet/Dry as Fundamental #

1. If multiple matters exist, they must be distinguished by opposites (cannot divide by non-contraries, e.g., “male and good” doesn’t partition a group because same individual can be both)
2. Hot/cold and wet/dry are causes of other apparent opposites (hard/soft, colors, tastes)
3. The senses reveal no more fundamental opposites than these four
4. Therefore: these four pairs define the four fundamental elements

The Problem of Understanding Inward Change #

• So long as change is understood only as local motion, qualitative change (alteration) cannot be genuinely explained
• If something’s quality truly changes, where did that quality come from? Ex nihilo nihil fit.
• This forces reduction of all change to local motion, even when our experience suggests something more (e.g., teaching, death, generation)
• Resolution (later with Aristotle): requires understanding of potency/ability (δύναμις) as a real principle distinct from actuality

Important Definitions #

• Mixture (κρᾶσις): The combination of elemental constituents in various proportions to form compounds
• Separation (διάκρασις): The dissolution of compounds back into their elemental components
• Potency/Ability (δύναμις): The capacity for change; Empedocles cannot explain this, but Aristotle later develops it to explain how qualitative change is possible without coming from nothing
• Ex nihilo nihil fit: “Nothing comes from nothing”—fundamental principle that denies true generation from non-being

Examples & Illustrations #

The Marching Band Example #

A university marching band enters a football field:

• First forms shape of a boat and plays “Anchors Away”
• Then forms shape of Michigan state and plays Michigan song
• What appears to be “change of shape” is actually 150 individuals each changing place
• Demonstrates how apparent qualitative change reduces to multiple local motions

The Coffee and Sugar Example #

• Bitter coffee becomes sweet when sugar is added
• Appears to be qualitative change of the coffee itself
• Actually: sugar particles change place from sugar bowl into coffee
• Coffee remains bitter; sugar remains sweet; only their locations and mixture change

The Water Heating Example #

• Water appears to change from cold to hot while staying in the same pot
• Empedocles’ explanation: not an inward change of quality but countless molecules moving faster (local motion)
• Before water bubbles/shoots from pan, molecules vibrate at increasing speeds
• What we call “heat” is the gross appearance of this molecular local motion
• Person without “far-reaching mind” cannot follow all these molecular movements, so thinks it’s qualitative change

The Basement Flooding Example #

• Yesterday basement was dry; today it’s full of water
• Appears water came into existence from nothing
• Actually: water changed place from soil, clouds, or underground sources, entering through cracks
• Only “fool with no far-reaching mind” would think water came from nothing

Heating and Color Changes #

• White bread toasted changes from white to red to black: heat causes color change
• Metal heated becomes red-hot, even white-hot: heat affects color
• Hair damp in morning (darker) dries throughout day (becomes lighter/grayer): wet/dry affects color
• These show hot/cold and wet/dry are causes of color changes, not just correlates

The Caloric Theory Example #

Early modern science proposed “caloric” substance (by nature hot) flowing from hot to cold body:

• Hot body loses caloric → becomes cooler
• Cold body gains caloric → becomes warmer
• This is merely disguised change of place, like the sugar example
• Later replaced by kinetic theory (molecular motion), but still reduces quality-change to local motion

Questions Addressed #

Why did Empedocles reject single first matter? #

The either-or argument shows that no single first matter can account for the diversity of qualities in the universe without leading to absurdities: either everything shares one quality, or nothing has any qualities at all.

Why are hot/cold and wet/dry the fundamental opposites? #

Because they are causes of all other apparent opposite qualities. The senses know no more fundamental opposites. If you’re distinguishing first matters by opposites, you must use the most fundamental opposites known to sensory experience.

Why distinguish first matters by opposites rather than some other principle? #

When dividing a group by opposites, no individual falls between the two categories (can’t be both male and female; can’t be both good and bad). This creates a proper partition. Non-opposite divisions fail (young/male doesn’t partition humans because same person can be both young and male).

How can all change be merely mixture and separation? #

Because if anything truly comes into being or ceases to be, you violate the principle that you cannot get something from nothing or reduce something to nothing. Therefore, generation and corruption must be reinterpreted as mixture and separation of eternal, unchanging elements.

How long did Empedocles’ theory dominate? #

The four elements theory was “the longest lasting chemical theory in history.” It remained the standard theory from roughly 500 BCE (Empedocles’ time) until Shakespeare’s era—over 2,000 years. Shakespeare’s plays contain numerous references to the four elements.

Notable Quotes #

“There is no birth of any mortal thing, nor end in destructive death. There is only a mixing and an exchange of what has been mixed. Birth is a name given to these by ignorant men.” — Empedocles (via Empedocles’ fragments)

“Fools! They have no far-reaching minds who think that what before was not comes to be, or that anything dies and is destroyed utterly.” — Empedocles, on those who deny his theory

“You can’t get something out of nothing.” — Empedocles, fundamental principle (cited throughout)

“I also follow the custom,” — Empedocles, acknowledging that he speaks of birth and death despite not believing in them, just as modern scientists say “the sun rose” despite knowing the sun doesn’t move