28. Quality, Character, and the Continuous Foundation of Analogical Language

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

The Sacramental Character and the Species of Quality #

• The character (χαρακτήρ) imprinted in baptism, confirmation, and holy orders requires philosophical classification
• Four unsuccessful attempts to place character:
  1. Fourth species (figure): Cannot stand because figure, taken properly, implies termination of dimensional quantity, which is not in the soul; if taken metaphorically, the metaphor must reduce to something proper, and no proper figure exists in the soul
  2. Third species (passion/sensible quality): Cannot stand because the third species exists only in the sensible part of the soul, but character is placed in the understanding/intellectual part
  3. First species (habit): Cannot stand because character is not ordered to acting well or badly (bene vel male), whereas habit is defined precisely by this ordering; a priest can consecrate whether acting well or badly
• Solution: Character is reduced to the second species of quality (natural ability/power), but as a spiritual power rather than natural power—a distinction Aristotle could not make since he knew only natural operations

The Continuous as Foundation for Analogical Language #

• Thomas Aquinas’s crucial insight: equivocal terms used in theology derive primarily from the continuous, not from private sensibles (like colors)
• The continuous is defined as:
  • Logically: quantity whose parts meet at a common boundary
  • In natural philosophy: that which is divisible forever
• Three interconnected aspects of the continuous:
  • Magnitude (spatial extension: line, surface, body)
  • Motion (continuous change of place along magnitude)
  • Time (continuous duration of motion)
• Aristotle’s example of faster and slower runners demonstrates this divisibility: the faster runner covers distance in less time; this divides time; at lesser time, slower runner covers less distance; at lesser distance, faster runner takes even less time

The Eight Senses of “To Be In” #

• All eight senses derive from the continuous, particularly from place (a species of continuous quantity)
• First sense: to be in place (spatial containment)
• Remaining senses develop analogically: to be a part in a whole, genus in species, form in matter, whole in parts, etc.
• Nicholas Connick’s wonder at teaching this material for decades demonstrates the philosophical beauty of understanding how language extends from the sensible continuous

Equivocal Terms Beginning from the Continuous #

• Before (πρό): First meaning is temporal priority; time is a species of continuous quantity; other meanings develop analogically
• Form (μορφή): First meaning comes from the continuous (shape, external appearance); extends to substantial form and other philosophical senses
• Procession (Puchesson/Progressio): First meaning is going forward through continuous motion; then extended to divine processions of the Son and Holy Spirit from the Father
• These extensions follow the pattern that Thomas emphasizes: start from continuous things, then extend to other domains

Reason and the Continuous in Shakespeare #

• Shakespeare’s definition: “Reason is the ability for large discourse, looking before and after”
• Large: Taken from magnitude (the first species of continuous quantity); universals cover a large area because said of many
• Discourse: Taken from running (cursus), which is continuous motion
• Looking before and after: Before and after begin with time (species of continuous quantity)
• Aristotle uses νοῦς (nous) and διανοητικόν (diapoetic) to distinguish understanding from the discursive element in reason
• Result: Shakespeare’s definition encapsulates the continuous across three dimensions simultaneously

Act and Potency as Foundation for Theology #

• Aristotle’s Metaphysics Book 9 establishes that act is prior to potency in multiple ways
• Although in a changing thing potency precedes act, the first being must be pure act (actus purus)
• The first meaning of act is motion—Aristotle repeatedly returns to this
• This doctrine provides the foundation for proving God’s simplicity, immutability, and perfection in a single insight
• Thomas develops this more fully in Summa Contra Gentiles than in Summa Theologiae

The Four Senses of “Beginning” and “End” #

• Beginning (ἀρχή):
  1. Limit of continuous magnitude: the curb begins my property; point begins the line; line begins the surface; surface begins the body
  2. Fundamental part of a thing: foundation of a house
  3. Source or origin (not a part): father is the beginning of the son; carpenter is the beginning of the table
  4. Divine beginning: God is the beginning not as a boundary or part, but as source
• End (τέλος):
  1. Boundary of magnitude: end of the table where it terminates
  2. Terminus of motion: where motion stops
  3. Purpose or intention: that for which something exists
  4. Definition/essence: the terminus of knowledge (knowing what a thing is)
• These senses are connected to Revelation’s statement: “I am the Alpha and the Omega, the first and the last, the beginning and the end”
• Thomas structures Summa Contra Gentiles around these: Book 1 on God in himself, Book 2 on God as beginning, Book 3 on God as end

Where and When (Place and Time) #

• Translations of πού (pou) and πότε (pote) should be “where” and “when,” not “place” and “time”
• Place and time are extrinsic measures—like a measuring cup for rice or a bottle labeled “750 milliliters”
• Position (σχέσις) comes after where and when and involves arrangement of parts around something external
• Example of sitting: merely crouching does not constitute sitting; one must arrange oneself around an external thing (chair) to truly sit

Key Arguments #

Why Character Cannot Be First Species (Habit) #

• Character is ordered to a specific operation (consecration, absolving), not to the good or bad of that operation
• Definition of habit: that by which we are able to act well or badly (bene vel male)
• A priest with proper character performs valid sacraments regardless of whether he acts well or badly
• Therefore character lacks the essential ordering of habit and cannot be classified as first species

Why Character Cannot Be Third Species (Sensible Quality) #

• Third species (passions/undergoing qualities) exist only in the sensible part of the soul (powers like sight, smell, taste)
• Character is universally placed in the intellectual part of the soul—understood part, not sensed part
• The powers of the soul (understanding, will) are located in the intellectual part
• Therefore character cannot be placed in third species

Why Character Cannot Be Fourth Species (Figure) #

• Figure, taken properly, implies termination of dimensial continuous quantity
• Continuous quantity exists in extended bodies, not in immaterial souls
• If figure is taken metaphorically, the metaphor must reduce to something proper (not further metaphorical)
• No proper figure can be found in the immaterial soul
• Matthew 5:14 illustrates the problem: “You are the light of the world” is metaphorical and cannot place us in the genus of quality through metaphor alone
• Therefore character cannot be placed in fourth species

Why Character Must Be Second Species (Spiritual Power) #

• Second species: natural abilities and inabilities (powers of the soul)
• Character must be some kind of power or ability—specifically, the power to consecrate, absolve, etc.
• Aristotle’s definition of natural ability/inability was limited to natural operations, not supernatural ones
• Solution: Extend second species to include spiritual powers in addition to natural powers
• Just as infused habits are in the same species as acquired habits, so too spiritual powers are in the second species as a distinct mode from natural powers
• Character is therefore a quality in the second species, functioning as a spiritual power

Why Analogical Terms Must Originate in the Continuous #

• Our knowledge begins with the senses and proceeds from there (sensible things first, then intellectual abstraction)
• Private sensibles (colors like red and green) are too immersed in sense experience to serve as the basis for analogical extension to immaterial realities
• The continuous (magnitude, motion, time) provides the proper foundation because:
  • It is known through sensation but not dependent on a particular sense
  • It bridges sensible and intellectual understanding
  • It provides the structure for analogical predication
• Example: “To be in” extends from spatial containment (place) to multiple other relationships, all anchored in the continuous

Important Definitions #

Quality (as genus) #

• Determined by the question how or what kind (qualis in Latin, ποῖος in Greek)
• Signifies the limit or determination of a thing
• Distinguished from quantity (how much/how many) and relation (toward another)

Character (Sacramental) #

• A quality imprinted in the soul through certain sacraments (baptism, confirmation, holy orders)
• Not a natural power but a spiritual power—a mode of second species quality distinct from natural abilities
• Ordered to specific supernatural operations (to be able to receive or administer sacraments)
• Permanent (indelebile) and indelible, not subject to loss through misuse

The Continuous (τὸ συνεχές) #

• Logical definition: Quantity whose parts meet at a common boundary
• Natural philosophy definition: That which is divisible into divisible parts forever (infinitely divisible)
• Three manifestations: Magnitude (spatial), motion (change of place), time (duration)
• Foundation for analogical extension of terms from sensible to intellectual and theological domains

Habit (Habitus) #

• That by which we are disposed to act well or badly (bene vel male)
• Distinguished from power: power is the ability to do something; habit is the ability to do it well or badly
• Example: understanding enables consideration; science enables good consideration
• Not applicable to character because character is not ordered to good or bad performance

Power/Ability (Potentia/Δύναμις) #

• That by which we are able to do something without qualification
• In the second species of quality
• Divided into natural (inborn) and spiritual (supernatural)
• Character is a spiritual power not known to Aristotle

Disposition (Dispositio) #

• An incomplete or unstable habit
• Not yet firmly established in the subject
• Analogous to potency in relation to act

Passion/Undergoing Quality (Πάθος) #

• Third species of quality: sensible qualities capable of alteration
• Found only in the sensible part of the soul
• Examples: hot, cold, sweet, bitter, colors
• Subject to motion and change

Examples & Illustrations #

The Priest and Valid Sacraments #

• A priest’s character gives him power to consecrate whether he acts bene or male (well or badly)
• He might consecrate while intending to make money or reward his nephews
• The validity of the sacrament does not depend on whether the priest acts virtuously
• This proves character is not ordered to good or bad action and therefore cannot be a habit

The Measuring Cup Analogy #

• Rice is measured by a cup; the cup is outside the rice
• Wine is measured in milliliters; the measurement is external
• A barrel of wine lasts longer than smaller quantities
• These external measures (place and time) are extrinsic, unlike a thing’s size or internal relations

The Runner’s Speed and Divisibility #

• A faster runner covers the same distance in less time than a slower runner
• This divides time into lesser intervals
• At the lesser time, the slower runner covers less distance
• At the lesser distance, even the faster runner takes less time
• This exemplifies how magnitude, motion, and time are all infinitely divisible

Standing and Sitting #

• Standing and sitting are positions
• To be sitting requires arranging one’s parts around something external (a chair)
• Merely crouching arranges parts but is not sitting because there is no external reference
• Crouching is very uncomfortable because it lacks the external support that makes sitting stable
• This illustrates how position, like place and time, involves external reference

Jumping from an Airplane #

• If I jump from an airplane, my body’s parts are arranged the same way as when standing
• But I am not standing because I am falling through space
• Position cannot be understood as merely the arrangement of one’s parts in isolation
• External reference (to a floor or ground) is essential to the category of position

The Point, Line, and Surface #

• The point is the beginning of a line
• The line is the beginning of a surface
• The surface is the beginning of a body
• These are the first senses of “beginning,” derived from the continuous
• Later senses extend from this foundation to non-spatial domains

The Newsreel (Les Actualités) #

• In Quebec, the newsreel was called “Les Actualités!” (The Actual Happenings)
• A French acquaintance asked Berquist, “What’s actual, what’s new?”
• The news is what’s going on—what is in act
• This illustrates how “actual” and “act” relate to what is presently happening, in motion

The Curb as Beginning of Property #

• “The curb is the beginning of my property”
• The curb marks the boundary where one’s property begins
• This is the first sense of beginning: a limit or boundary of continuous magnitude

The Table’s End #

• The end of the table is where it terminates in one direction
• It does not extend all the way to where the students are sitting
• This is the first sense of end: the boundary of magnitude

Notable Quotes #

“Hoc dan potas stare. This can’t stand up. That’s a beautiful way to tell us.” —Berquist, commenting on a scholastic formula used to refute a position

“The priest by his consecration has a power, but that power doesn’t show he’s going to use it well or badly. He might use it to make money or something, or to reward his nephews.” —Berquist, illustrating why character cannot be a habit

“We name things as we know them. And then he alludes to the fact that our knowledge starts with our senses and goes forward from there.” —Berquist, summarizing Thomas Aquinas’s epistemological principle

“The continuous is that which is divisible forever.” —Berquist, presenting the natural philosophy definition from Aristotle

“Place and time are extrinsic measures.” —Berquist, explaining the relationship of where and when to continuous quantity

“I am the Alpha and the Omega, the first and the last, the beginning and the end.” —Scripture (Revelation), quoted by Berquist to show theological use of terms derived from the continuous

“Reason is the ability for large discourse, looking before and after.” —Shakespeare, quoted by Berquist as exemplifying how reason encompasses three aspects of the continuous

“That’s really marvelous.” —Berquist, repeatedly expressing appreciation for Thomas’s insight into equivocal terms derived from the continuous

Questions Addressed #

Can the sacramental character be placed in the fourth species of quality (figure)? #

• No. Figure, understood properly, implies the termination of dimensional continuous quantity, which does not exist in the immaterial soul. If figure is taken metaphorically, the metaphor must reduce to something proper, but no proper figure exists in the soul (Matthew 5:14 teaches this: “You are the light of the world” is metaphorical and does not place us in the genus of quality).

Can the sacramental character be placed in the third species of quality (sensible qualities)? #

• No. The third species exists only in the sensible part of the soul (the powers of sense perception), but character is universally placed in the intellectual part of the soul, where the powers of understanding and will reside.

Can the sacramental character be placed in the first species of quality (habit)? #

• No. A habit is that by which we are able to act well or badly. Character, however, is ordered to a specific operation (like consecration) regardless of whether the priest performs it well or badly. A priest with the character can consecrate validly even if acting for bad motives. Therefore character lacks the essential ordering of habit.

What is the proper classification of sacramental character? #

• Character is a quality in the second species (ability/power), specifically a spiritual power rather than a natural power. This is a mode of second species distinct from what Aristotle knew, since Aristotle was aware only of natural operations and natural powers.

Why do equivocal theological terms derive from the continuous rather than from private sensibles? #

• Private sensibles (like specific colors) are too bound up in sense experience and lack the generality necessary for analogical extension to immaterial realities. The continuous (magnitude, motion, time) bridges sensible and intellectual knowledge and provides the structural foundation for analogical predication. Our knowledge begins with sensation and proceeds inward; the continuous is the proper starting point for terms extended to God and supernatural reality.

How does Shakespeare’s definition of reason encapsulate the continuous? #

• “Reason is the ability for large discourse, looking before and after.” Large comes from magnitude (first species of continuous); discourse comes from running/motion (second species of continuous); before and after come from time (third species of continuous). The definition simultaneously encompasses all three aspects of the continuous in a unified expression of rational activity.

How are the eight senses of “to be in” all derived from the continuous? #

• All eight senses originate in the primary sense of being in place (spatial containment), which is a species of continuous quantity. From this foundation, the term is extended analogically: to be a part in a whole, genus in species, form in matter, whole in its parts, and others. This demonstrates how the continuous provides the analogical foundation for equivocal terms.

Why must position involve an external reference and not merely the arrangement of parts? #

• Merely arranging one’s parts in a certain way (crouching) is not the same as sitting. To sit requires arranging oneself around something external (a chair). Jumping from an airplane keeps the parts in the same arrangement but removes the external reference, so one is not standing. The category of position, like where and when, involves extrinsic reference beyond the thing itself.

Connections to Key Doctrines #

Grace as Supernatural Quality #

• Grace is not a natural power (second species) in the ordinary sense but an elevation of the soul to supernatural operation
• It is in the first species of quality as a supernatural habit
• It roots the three theological virtues (faith, hope, charity) in the powers of the soul
• Understanding character as spiritual power (second species) helps clarify how supernatural realities are yet properly classified within Aristotelian categories

Analogy and Theological Language #

• Terms applied to God (beginning, end, procession) are used analogically, deriving their meaning from continuous quantity
• This explains how we can speak meaningfully of God despite his transcendence
• Thomas Aquinas’s insight into the continuous as the foundation for equivocal terms provides the philosophical framework for theological language

The Trinity and Divine Processions #

• “Procession” begins with the continuous motion of going forward
• When extended to the Trinity, it names the eternal going forth of the Son from the Father and the Holy Spirit from the Father and Son
• This is not spatial or temporal motion but is named from motion by analogy
• The continuous provides the linguistic bridge from physical to metaphysical and theological realities