26. Definition: Cause, Effect, Substance, and Accident

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

Definition by Cause vs. Definition by Effect #

• Definition by cause: explains what makes a thing to be what it is; more perfect and rigorous
• Definition by effect: explains what results from what a thing is; more accessible and known to us initially
• These two distinctions are nearly identical to the distinction between definition in the full sense and encircling definition
• The effect is usually more known to us than the cause because our knowledge begins with sensation, which perceives effects more readily
• We naturally tend to define by effect first, then reason toward causes

The Socratic Question and Its Philosophical Importance #

• Foundational question: “Is X good because we desire it, or do we desire it because it is good?”
• This question reveals whether we are defining by cause or by effect
• Applies universally: Is something beautiful because it pleases us, or does it please us because it is beautiful?
• Heisenberg recognized this Socratic method as “the most powerful tool the Western mind has”
• Answering this question correctly determines one’s entire ethical, metaphysical, and aesthetic framework

The Definition of Good: A Paradigmatic Case #

• First definition of good: “What all desire”
• This is a definition by effect, not by cause
• Critical distinction for ethics:
  • If good is good because we desire it → goodness has no objective reality in things themselves
  • If we desire it because it is good → goodness is a real property of things
• “If you don’t understand that, you don’t understand anything” (ethics, virtue, human action, etc.)
• The entire edifice of ethics depends on this single distinction

The Definition of Beauty (Augustine’s Example) #

• Common definition: “The beautiful is that which pleases when seen”
• Augustine’s Socratic question: “Is it beautiful because it pleases us, or does it please us because it is beautiful?”
• Augustine’s answer: “I have no doubt that it pleases us because it is beautiful”
• This definition is by effect (pleasing), not by cause (beauty itself)
• Understanding this determines the entire approach to fine arts and aesthetics
• If beauty is only in our response, then Mozart’s beauty is nothing real; if beauty is in the thing, it is objective

Substance vs. Accident: Different Kinds of Definition #

• Substance (e.g., man, dog): exists in itself; can be defined by itself; stands under accidents
• Accident (e.g., health, color): exists in another; cannot exist independently; must be defined as “something of another”
• Key metaphysical truth: You cannot separate a man from his health by putting the man in one room and his health in another, because health exists only in the body
• Consequence for definition: Health must be defined as “a good condition of the body” or “a good disposition of the body” — always referencing something other than itself
• This reveals that definition itself must vary based on the kind of thing being defined

Why Definitions of Accidents Seem Problematic #

• Aristotle notes (in Metaphysics VII) that either there is no definition of accident, or definition applies only in a secondary sense
• The problem: A definition should contain only what is being defined and nothing else (true of substance definitions); but an accident’s definition must include something other (its subject)
• Yet we must define accidents — so we accept this secondary sense of definition
• This demonstrates that logic cannot be entirely separated from metaphysical reality

Definition as Convertible Speech (λόγος) #

• A definition must be convertible with what it defines
• Convertible: If A is B and B is A (every instance of A is B, and every instance of B is A)
• Example: “Equilateral and right-angled quadrilateral” is convertible with “square”
• Counterexample: “Something to sit on” is NOT convertible with “chair” (benches, sofas, saddles also fit this definition)
• The word definition itself comes from Latin finīre (to limit, to bound), suggesting exact boundaries
• Greek word ὅρος (horos, limit) and ὁρισμός (horismos) relate to the boundary-marking function of definition
• Etymology from farming and city limits: just as city limits must contain all of the city and none of neighboring towns, a definition must contain all instances of the thing and nothing else

Things Defined as “Something of Another” #

• Wisdom: the highest perfection of reason (cannot be understood without understanding reason)
• Love: conformity or agreement of the heart with its object
• Desire: the heart’s seeking of an object
• Joy/Delight: the heart resting in an object once acquired
• General principle: You cannot fully understand X without understanding Y if X is something of Y

Key Arguments #

The Primacy of Cause-Effect Distinction in Ethics #

1. Ethics deals with the good and human action
2. The first definition of good is “what all desire”
3. This definition must be understood as definition by effect, not by cause
4. If we define good by effect (something pleases us/we desire it), then goodness has no objective reality
5. If we define good by cause (we desire it because it is good), then goodness is real in things
6. Therefore: The entire framework of ethics — virtue, vice, human flourishing — depends on correctly understanding this single distinction

Why We Define by Effect Before Cause #

1. Our knowledge originates in sensation
2. Sensation perceives effects more readily than causes
3. Every time we ask “why?” we already know the effect but not the cause
4. Therefore, we naturally define things by their effects first, then reason toward their causes through inquiry
5. This is why encircling definitions (less precise) come before definitions in the full sense (more precise)

Logic Cannot Be Separated from Metaphysical Reality #

1. Some modern logicians attempt purely formal logic divorced from metaphysical reality
2. But this fails because the kind of definition required depends on the kind of thing being defined
3. A substance definition (self-subsistent) must differ from an accident definition (dependent on another)
4. Therefore: Logic must account for metaphysical distinctions in things
5. Logic is a tool for understanding reality, not merely a formal game
6. As Berquist states: “You can’t fully separate logic from things”

Important Definitions #

Definition by Cause (Definitio per causam) #

A definition that explains what makes a thing to be what it is; more perfect because it identifies the efficient, material, formal, or final cause. Example: Marriage as “a stable union of a man and woman by mutual choice for the sake of children” (involves all four causes).

Definition by Effect (Definitio per effectum) #

A definition that explains what results from or follows upon what a thing is; more accessible to us initially because effects are more known than causes. Example: “Good is what all desire” (the effect of goodness is being desired).

Definition in the Full Sense (Definitio in sensu stricto / Definitio propria) #

A definition that includes the genus and the specific difference that makes the thing what it is. Example: “Man is a rational animal.”

Encircling Definition (Definitio circumscriptiva) #

A definition that approaches the thing but does not fully specify what it is; includes genus and a property or accident rather than the specific difference. Example: “A dog is a four-footed animal that barks.”

Convertible Speech (Oratio convertibilis) #

A definition and what it defines must be equivalent: every instance of the thing is an instance of the definition, and vice versa. This ensures the definition truly captures the thing’s boundaries.

Substance (Substantia) #

That which exists in itself (ens per se), not in another; can be defined by itself without essential reference to something else. Examples: man, dog, individual material things.

Accident (Accidens) #

That which exists in another (ens in alio), not by itself; must be defined as “something of another” or as dependent on its subject. Examples: health (accident of the body), color (accident of a surface), wisdom (perfection of reason).

Property (Proprium) #

An attribute that necessarily follows from the essence of a thing but is not part of its definition. Example: Barking follows from being a dog but is not what makes a thing a dog.

Examples & Illustrations #

The Dog and Barking #

• A dog barks because it is a dog; the dog is not a dog because it barks
• Barking is an effect of being a dog, not the cause of being a dog
• We might recognize a dog by its barking (epistemology), but barking is not its definition (metaphysics)
• A cat meows because it is a cat; it is not a cat because it meows
• Principle: Property and effect are not the essence

Comedy and the Laughable #

• Comedy is often defined as “a likeness of the laughable” or “what makes you laugh”
• This is a definition by effect (it produces laughter)
• But the essence of comedy is not that it causes laughter; laughter results from comedy
• Just as with drama: tragedy makes us weep, but weeping is not the essence of tragedy
• Pattern: We tend to define artistic forms by their effects on us because effects are more immediately known

Definition of a Chair #

• A student says: “A chair is something to sit on”
• Testing convertibility: Every chair is something to sit on ✓, but is everything to sit on a chair? ✗ (benches, sofas, saddles, stools)
• The definition fails to be convertible
• Refining: “Something to sit on for one person” — but saddles and stools also fit this
• Further refining: “Something for one person to sit upon that has legs and a back”
• Lesson: Even familiar objects are difficult to define precisely without careful thought

Health as an Accident #

• You can remove a man from a room and put a dog in another room (substances can be separated)
• But you cannot remove a man from a room and put his health in another room
• Health exists only in the body; it is not a self-subsistent thing
• Therefore, health must be defined as “a good condition of the body” — always referencing the body
• Consequence: The definition of an accident necessarily includes something other than what is being defined

Wisdom as Something of Reason #

• Wisdom cannot be understood without understanding reason
• Wisdom is “the highest or greatest perfection of reason”
• Reason’s function is to order and direct; therefore, the wise person orders and directs others
• You cannot define wisdom in isolation from reason because wisdom is an excellence of reason
• Similar cases: Love is conformity of the heart with its object; desire is the heart’s seeking; joy is the heart’s resting in the object

Notable Quotes #

“Is it good because we desire it, or do we desire it because it is good? The whole ethics depends upon understanding whether that definition of good is by cause or by effect. If you don’t understand that, you don’t understand anything.” — Duane Berquist

“I have no doubt that it pleases us because it is beautiful.” — St. Augustine (on the definition of beauty)

“The greats taught us how to ask questions of principle. And they gave us the most powerful tool the Western mind has.” — Werner Heisenberg (as cited by Berquist)

“You can’t fully separate logic from things.” — Duane Berquist

“Logic is not a substitute for thinking. You still have to think when you use these ways.” — Duane Berquist

Questions Addressed #

Is the definition of good by cause or by effect? #

Answer: By effect. The first definition of good is “what all desire,” which is an effect of goodness, not its cause. We desire things because they are good, not the reverse. Understanding this distinction is foundational to all of ethics.

Why can an accident not be defined by itself alone? #

Answer: An accident (like health) exists only in another (like the body) and has no independent existence. Therefore, any definition of an accident must necessarily reference its subject. This is why Aristotle says either accidents have no definition, or only in a secondary sense.

Why do we define things by effect before cause? #

Answer: Because our knowledge begins with sensation, and sensation perceives effects more readily than causes. Every time we ask “why?” we already know the effect but not the cause. This is the natural order of human knowledge.

Must definition always be convertible? #

Answer: Yes. A definition must contain all instances of the thing and only instances of that thing. If “A is B” but “not all B are A,” then A and B are not convertible, and the definition is incomplete or incorrect.

How does understanding definitions relate to understanding reality? #

Answer: The kind of definition we use must correspond to the kind of thing being defined. Substances are defined by themselves; accidents must be defined as dependent on their subjects. Logic cannot be divorced from metaphysics without losing connection to what things actually are.

Is defining an automatic or mechanical process? #

Answer: No. Unlike arithmetic (which becomes automatic), defining requires genuine thinking. While logic provides methods and rules, these are tools, not substitutes for intellectual work.