2. Wisdom as Knowledge of Causes and First Principles

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

Experience versus Art/Science #

The fundamental distinction Aristotle establishes: the experienced person knows that something is so, while the person of art or science knows why it is so—they know the cause. This is not merely a difference in degree but in the character of knowledge itself. Examples: wine merchants know bottles should be stored horizontally but may not know why (cork preservation); chemists understand the chemical processes involved.

The Six Characteristics of the Wise Man #

Berquist systematically presents Aristotle’s description:

1. Knows all things in some general way - not in particular, but through knowledge of universals
2. Knows difficult things - things furthest from the senses and hardest for man to know
3. Is more certain - has greater certitude in what he knows than others
4. Is able to teach - can explain the causes and reasons to others
5. Possesses knowledge desirable for its own sake - pursues knowledge contemplatively, not for utility
6. Commands rather than is commanded - directs other knowledge and other knowers; wisdom is the architectonic science

Wisdom, Universality, and Infinity #

To know all things “in some way,” one must know what is most universal. By knowing the universal “odd number,” one knows an infinity of odd numbers; by knowing “even number,” one knows an infinity of even numbers. Similarly, knowing “prime number” encompasses knowledge of infinitely many primes. This resolution shows how apparent omniscience is achieved through universal principles.

The Paradox of Certainty and Difficulty #

Wisdom is characterized by both greater certainty AND knowledge of more difficult things—an apparent contradiction. The resolution: what is most universal requires fewer considerations and variables, making it more certain despite being more distant from the senses and therefore more difficult to attain. Arithmetic is more certain than geometry because geometry must account for position (points have location); geometry is more certain than natural philosophy because natural philosophy must account for matter and its variations.

Knowledge of Causes and Hierarchies #

If something has a cause, and that cause has a cause, the person who knows the cause of the cause is wiser still. This continues until reaching first causes. The wise man ultimately seeks knowledge of the first causes that illuminate all derivative knowledge.

Hierarchy of Arts and Sciences by Example #

• Medical profession: The doctor commands the pharmacist; the doctor knows why medication is needed, while the pharmacist merely dispenses it following prescription
• Military command: Napoleon knows the strategic purpose of cavalry charges; the cavalry officer executes orders without understanding the larger plan (“Theirs not to reason why, theirs but to do and die”)
• Teaching penmanship: The chief teacher knows that forming the letter C from top to bottom facilitates smooth cursive writing; the assistant merely enforces the rule without understanding the reason
• Factory work: Workers are not paid to think, only to do—they lack knowledge of causes

Key Arguments #

Knowledge of Causes Constitutes Wisdom #

• The experienced know facts; the artisan/scientist knows causes
• All societies recognize the chief artisan as wiser than the subordinate artisan precisely because the chief knows causes and directs others
• Teaching requires knowledge of causes; one cannot fully teach if one merely knows that something is so but cannot explain why

Universals Encompass All Things #

• The wise man cannot know all particulars, but through knowledge of universals, he knows all things “in some way”
• The most universal principles are furthest from the senses and therefore most difficult to know, yet they illuminate all particular instances
• To achieve omniscience (as a characteristic of wisdom), one must possess knowledge of what is said of all—the most universal

Certainty Correlates with Universality, Not Particularity #

• Abstract sciences (closer to universals) are more certain than concrete sciences
• Arithmetic > geometry > natural philosophy in terms of certainty
• The reason: fewer variables must be considered in universal knowledge
• Despite being more difficult to attain, universal knowledge is more certain once possessed

Wisdom Directs All Other Knowledge #

• The sixth characteristic of the wise man is commanding authority
• Just as the doctor commands the pharmacist and Napoleon commands the cavalry officer, wisdom commands all other sciences
• This is not merely organizational but epistemological: wisdom, knowing first causes, directs how all other knowledge is pursued and understood

Important Definitions #

Wisdom (σοφία / sophia): Knowledge of first causes and most universal principles; characterized by knowing why rather than merely that; contemplative knowledge pursued for its own sake; the most divine form of knowledge.

Experience (ἐμπειρία / empeiria): Knowledge of singular things accumulated through memory; knows “that it is so” but not “why it is so”; more authoritative than sensation but inferior to art and science.

Art/Science (τέχνη / techne or ἐπιστήμη / episteme): Universal knowledge of principles and causes; knows “why it is so”; superior to experience because it grasps causes; varies in dignity depending on whether causes are first or derivative.

The Universal (τὸ καθόλου / to katholou): That which is said of many; encompasses an infinity of particulars; the means by which one can know all things “in some way”; what is furthest from sensation.

First Causes (αἰτίαι / aitiai): The ultimate principles that illuminate all derivative knowledge; wisdom aims at first causes, not merely any causes (as every art or science aims at some causes).

Chief Artist (ἀρχιτέκτων / architekton): The master craftsman or scientist who knows causes and directs subordinate artisans; characterized by commanding authority and knowledge of why things are done.

Subordinate Artist: One who executes the commands of the chief artisan; knows how to do things but not why; lacks the knowledge of causes that characterizes the chief artisan.

Examples & Illustrations #

Wine Storage #

• Experienced knowledge: Wine merchants know bottles are stored on their side but may not know why
• Scientific knowledge: The chemist understands that upright corks dry out, allowing air to enter and spoil wine, while horizontal storage keeps the cork moist, expanded, and sealed
• Illustration of the superiority of causal knowledge: The chemist seems wiser because he knows the cause

Tea Steeping #

• Common mistaken explanation: Tea becomes “too strong” after 7-10 minutes
• Correct explanation: Different disagreeable chemicals are released after approximately seven minutes
• Point: The chemist’s understanding of chemical processes makes him wiser than the person with mere experience

Medical Profession #

• Doctor vs. Pharmacist: The doctor commands; the pharmacist obeys
• Why the doctor is wiser: The doctor knows why medication is needed; the pharmacist merely dispenses it
• Societal recognition: We recognize doctors as more honorable and knowledgeable in the medical profession

Military Command #

• Napoleon and the Cavalry: Napoleon (chief artist) knows the strategic moment for cavalry to charge; the cavalry officer (subordinate) must wait for the signal
• Absence of knowledge in subordinates: The cavalry officer knows how to charge but not why the timing matters
• Literary reference: “The Charge of the Light Brigade”—“Theirs not to reason why, theirs but to do and die”

Penmanship Instruction #

• The problem: Some children form the letter C starting from bottom and going up; others start from top and go down
• Apparent indifference: Writing the letter C itself is unaffected by starting point
• The reason for proper formation: When writing cursive (cap), starting at the top allows smooth connection to the next letter; starting at bottom creates a break
• Knowledge of causes: The chief teacher knows this; the assistant does not

Factory Work #

• Berquist’s experience: Working in a factory with his older brother Mark
• The brother’s instruction: “You’re not paid to think; you’re just paid to do it”
• The illustration: Workers lack knowledge of causes; they merely execute commands

Numbers and Universals #

• Odd and even numbers: Knowing “odd number” encompasses knowledge of an infinite series; knowing “even number” the same
• Point: Through one universal concept, infinite particulars are known “in some way”
• Primes and composites: Similarly, knowing “prime number” and “composite number” encompasses infinite series
• Resolution of omniscience: The wise man knows all things through knowledge of universals

Mathematical Certainty #

• Arithmetic vs. Geometry: Arithmetic is more certain than geometry
• The reason: The unit (in arithmetic) is purely indivisible; the point (in geometry) is indivisible but adds position
• Consequence of position: In geometry, three points can be arranged differently (collinear or not); three units cannot
• Euclid’s practice: In geometry, different cases must be distinguished because of position; Euclid gives the most difficult case
• Natural Philosophy: Even less certain than geometry because matter introduces additional variables

Einstein as Recognition of Theoretical Wisdom #

• Modern recognition: Time magazine named Einstein “Man of the Century”
• Not for practical utility: Not for what Einstein made or constructed
• For theoretical understanding: For understanding the universe, for seeking to see the whole universe
• Even in a practical age: Modern culture, though practical, recognizes and honors this theoretical knowledge
• Einstein’s own words: “I’m not concerned with detail; I want to see the whole universe”

Descartes’ Cogito #

• Augustine’s precedent: Augustine used the cogito against skeptical academics who denied everything
• The paradox: How can one who doubts everything doubt that he is doubting?
• The certitude: There is supreme certainty in the fact of doubting, even when denying all else
• Illustration: Even skeptics must admit “I doubt, therefore I am”

Questions Addressed #

How can the wise man know all things if there are infinitely many particulars? #

• By knowing universals, one knows all particulars falling under those universals “in some way”
• Knowing “odd number” means knowing an infinite series of odd numbers
• Knowledge of universals achieves the characteristic of knowing all things

Why is wisdom more certain than other sciences if it concerns the most difficult things? #

• The most universal things, though furthest from sensation and therefore most difficult to know, require consideration of fewer variables
• Fewer variables mean fewer contingencies and greater certainty
• Arithmetic is more certain than geometry; geometry than natural philosophy
• Therefore universal knowledge, though most difficult to attain, is most certain once attained

What makes one artisan wiser than another? #

• The chief artisan knows causes; the subordinate artisan knows how to execute but not why
• The chief artisan commands; the subordinate obeys
• All societies recognize and honor the chief artisan as wiser and more noble

Can one teach without knowing causes? #

• Teaching in the full sense requires knowledge of causes
• One who merely knows “that it is so” can only demand belief; this is not true teaching
• Berquist’s example: A student asks “why?” and is told “you’ll understand when you’re older”—this is not full teaching
• A teacher who can explain why something is good or bad seems wiser than one who merely knows it is

How does wisdom relate to the structure of causes? #

• If something has a cause, and that cause has a cause, the person knowing the cause of the cause is wiser
• This continues until reaching first causes
• Wisdom aims not at any causes but at first causes that illuminate all derivative knowledge

Why is knowledge of the universal more honorable than knowledge of the singular? #

• The universal is more removed from sensation and therefore more difficult to know
• What is most difficult and most removed from sensation deserves greater honor
• Knowledge of the universal encompasses an infinity of particulars
• Therefore universal knowledge is more noble and excellent than particular knowledge

Connections to Other Topics #

Hierarchy of Sciences #

Berquist notes that while all sciences aim at some causes, wisdom aims at first causes specifically. This elevates wisdom above all other sciences in dignity and honesty, even if other sciences may be more practically necessary.

The Nature of Teaching #

The ability to teach is connected to knowledge of causes. A true teacher must know not merely that something is so but why it is so, and must be able to communicate that understanding to students. This distinguishes genuine teaching from mere transmission of rules or techniques.